Foreword 9 Introduction 15 Chapter 1: The Frontier Thesis Chapter Preface 21

1. The Significance of the Frontier in American History 24 Frederick Jackson Turner 2. The Turner Thesis Is Dated and Provincial 41 George Wilson Pierson 3. The Turner Thesis Is Universal and Relevant 48 Walter Prescott Webb

Chapter 2: The Frontier and the Native American Chapter Preface 59

1. The Indian Cannot Be Civilized 62 George Armstrong Custer 2. The Indian Cannot Be Civilized by Force 68 Starvation, and Hypocrisy Helen Hunt Jackson 3. The Military Protects Civilization from Savages George Armstrong Custer 75 4. The Military Savagely Destroys the Indians Testimony from U.S. Congressional Investigation 83 5. Indians Must Submerge Their Identity in the Dominant Culture Elaine Goodale Eastman 89 6. Indians Must Assert Their Ethnic Identity Archie Fire Lame Deer and Richard Erdoes 95

Chapter 3: The Wilderness Versus the Pioneer Chapter Preface 1. Physical Hardships Challenge the Fur Trader 104 Francis Chardon 108 2. Fiscal and Organizational Problems Challenge the Fur Entrepreneur 118 Washington Irving 3. Nature Severely Challenges the Miner 128 Daniel B. Woods 4. Capital and Technology Foster Victory over Nature 136 Edward Gould Buffum Chapter 4: Gender and Race on the Frontier Chapter Preface 143 1. The Frontier Woman Supports Her Husband and His Career 151 Elizabeth Custer 2. The Frontier Woman Develops Strength and Independence 158 Bessie Efner Rehwinkel 3. The Chinese Must Stay 169 Yan Phou Lee 4. The Chinese Must Go 177 James D. Phelan Chapter 5: The Creation of Frontier Mythic Heroes Chapter Preface 188 1. The White Cowboy Helped Win the West 195 Joseph McCoy 2. The Black Cowboy was the Equal of His White Brother 204 Nat Love 3. Calamity Jane Was Any Man’s Equal 211 Edward L. Wheeler 4. Billy the Kid Was a Folk Hero 219 Walter Woods 5. Billy the Kid Was a Sociopath 231 Pat Garrett Chapter 6: The Frontier and Todays Popular Culture Chapter Preface 238 1. The Western Film Is Merely Entertainment 240 Geoffrey O'Brien 2. The Western Film Provides Cultural Insights 251 JoEllen Shively 3. Some Western Films Clarify the Historical Record 263 Susan Wloszczyna 4. The Cowboy in Advertising 268 5. Levi Strauss Invented Western Work Clothes for Miners, Cowboys, and Engineers 272 Lynn Downey 6. Ralph Lauren Appropriated Western Work Clothes for Modern Consumers 277 Ann Fabian For Discussion 282 Chronology 286 Annotated Bibliography 289 Index 301